Table 1 Literature-supported studies on zoonoses connected to climate change worldwide

1

Borrelia burgdorferi

Puumala virus

Francisella tularensis

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE)

(Nationwide Children, Finland)

11.2 per 100,000 person-years (increasing trend and expansion 1996–2019)

6.4 per 100,000 person-years (stable)

2.5 per 100,000 person-years (cyclic change)

0.4 per 100,000 person-years (increasing trend and expansion 1996–2019)

[22]

2

Borrelia burgdorferi

(46 countries in 4 continents: Europe, North America, Asia, and Africa)

Review

Lyme disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi is expected to increase by about 20% in the next 1 or 2 decades in the USA alone

(increasing distribution of tick-associated Borrelia burgdorferi)

[17]

3

Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) caused by Phlebotomine sand flies (Iran)

17–47 cases per 100,000 population (1983–2012) and

15.8 cases per 100,000 population (2019)

(increasing distribution in the central, southern and eastern parts of Iran)

[7]

4

Zoonotic Babesia, vectored by Ixodes ticks (Global)

Review

Increasing incidence of babesiosis over time, mainly in the USA

[50]

5

Ticks transmit multiple bacterial, parasitic, and viral diseases (Latin America)

Review

Tick-borne diseases have been significantly increasing and extending to new territories.

[34]

6

Zoonotic multi-host, multi parasite

system (West Africa)

Increasing evidence of hybridisations and introgressions between co-infecting parasite species is becoming more common.

[3]

7

Arthropods and rodents transmitting zoonotic diseases (China)

Incidence rates related to the density of rodents reveal potential. Increase in the incidence of climate-sensitive diseases.

[15]

8

H5N1 and H7N9 subtypes of influenza A transmitting zoonotic influenza (Vietnam)

Climatic variables being associated with seasonal variation in the incidence of avian influenza outbreaks in the North.

[12]

9

Lassa fever

100,000–300,000 infections per annum, with circa 5,000 deaths

[62]

10

Leptospirosis

Roughly 1 million annual cases

[63]

11

Brucella spp., causing Brucellosis (Kenya, Yemen, Syria, Greece, Eritrea)

An evidence-based conservative estimate of the annual global incidence is 2.1 million, significantly higher than was previously assumed.

47.26 per 100,000 inhabitants in Syria (2017), 42.96 per 100,000 inhabitants in Greece (2015) and 21.82 per 100,000 inhabitants in Eritrea (2017).

[64, 65]

12

Rabies (worldwide)

Globally, 59,000 people are predicted to die each year from Rabies caused by dogs, resulting in a loss of 3.7 million DALYs. The central portion of deaths (59.6%) are reported in Asia and the African continent (36.4%).

[66]